Aspects of Data Representation in Programming

Data representation covers multiple aspects, including how data is stored, manipulated, and transmitted. Below is a structured breakdown of key aspects:

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1. Numeric Data Representation

A. Integer Representation

• Unsigned integers (only positive values)
• Signed integers (Two’s complement, Sign-Magnitude, One’s complement)
• BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) Representation

B. Floating-Point Representation

• IEEE 754 Standard (Single & Double Precision)
• Fixed-Point Representation (for embedded systems)
• Denormalized and Normalized numbers
• Precision errors in floating-point arithmetic

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2. Character and Text Representation

• ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
• Extended ASCII (8-bit encoding)
• Unicode (UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32)
• EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)
• Character encoding and its impact on text processing

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3. Boolean Data Representation

• Boolean values (0 and 1)
• Boolean logic operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR)
• Boolean representation in memory (1-bit vs. byte alignment)

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4. Complex Data Structure Representation

A. Arrays

• One-dimensional and Multi-dimensional arrays
• Row-major vs. Column-major ordering
• Memory alignment of array elements

B. Linked Lists

• Singly Linked Lists (Node-based representation)
• Doubly Linked Lists
• Circular Linked Lists
• Memory representation of linked structures

C. Stacks and Queues

• Array-based vs. Linked List-based implementation
• LIFO (Last-In-First-Out) and FIFO (First-In-First-Out) storage

D. Hash Tables and Hashing Techniques

• Direct Addressing vs. Hashing
• Collision Handling (Chaining, Open Addressing)
• Hash Functions and their role in data retrieval efficiency

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5. Data Storage and File Representation

A. Data Storage Units

• Bits, Bytes, Kilobytes, Megabytes, Gigabytes, etc.
• Memory addressing and endianness (Big-endian vs. Little-endian)

B. File Formats and Data Exchange

• Text-Based Formats: JSON, XML, CSV, YAML
• Binary Formats: Images (JPEG, PNG), Audio (MP3, WAV), Video (MP4, AVI)
• Compression (Lossless vs. Lossy formats)
• Serialization (Object-to-binary conversion in Java/Python/other languages)

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6. Data Compression Techniques

A. Lossless Compression (No data loss)

• Huffman Coding
• Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW)
• Run-Length Encoding (RLE)

B. Lossy Compression (Data loss occurs for efficiency)

• JPEG (Image compression)
• MP3 (Audio compression)
• MPEG (Video compression)

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7. Bitwise Operations and Optimization

• Bitwise AND, OR, XOR, NOT, Shift operations
• Masking and Flag Operations
• Using bitwise operations for performance optimization
• Memory-efficient data storage using bit fields

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8. Memory Representation and Management

• Stack vs. Heap memory allocation
• Garbage Collection in High-Level Languages
• Virtual Memory and Paging
• Data Alignment and Padding in Structs and Classes

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